feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. An improved water source over this period for resources leads to infanticide- the practice of killing others! They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. Livestock agriculture and fishing are also important, and the commercial bushmeat trade is large enough to threaten wildlife. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. Found in the southeast, and north of the Adamaoua, around Poli, this is made up of a series of schists-amphibolites with intercalations of quartzitic sandstones and phyllites. Please note that the areas of the layout diagrams are different for the engines types, see Fig. Water Supply and Sanitation in Cameroon. For further information about transboundary aquifers, please see the Transboundary aquifers resources page. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape No faecal samples were obtained in the wet season, owing to rapid deterioration during the rains and removal by seasonally abundant coprophagous insects. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Mzima springs. Cameroon lies in central-west Africa, with the Gulf of Guinea forming its western coast. Discover the magic of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered! The importance of buffalo was more pronounced for male lions, which corroborates findings from other studies [39]. Performed the experiments: ZD JEH FVK. WWF findings show that cholera and typhoid are amongst the top health challenges within communities near rivers due to inaccessibility to drinkable water. feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. 3A). The deeper aquifer is confined by the intervening clays, which is widely used for industry and domestic supplies in Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). We arbitrarily assigned the average adult female weight, with the exception of elephant as predominantly juveniles are preyed upon in dry periods [19], for each sample to allow a crude comparison with kill data. Sossusvlei Composed mainly of Cretaceous marine sandstones and limestones, which are 1000 to 2000 m thick. Twelve-year-old Akoela Francis Kame and his younger brother walk one-kilometer each day to fetch water here. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. 3B and C). During this time game sightings were spectacular. Cameroon has one of the strongest economies in sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo. Lion prey species found at kills classified in 8 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. Boxes show medians, 25% and 75% quartiles. Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions - EurekAlert! Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. Hence male and female data were analysed separately. In total, agriculture contributes around 40% of GDP. Dr Kirsty Upton and Brighid Dochartaigh, British Geological Survey, UK, Dr Imogen Bellwood-Howard, Institute of Development Studies, UK. Kill sites were classified based on the forensic evidence of a kill. Molua EL and Lambi CM. Volcanic massifs from the Adamaoua to the Atlantic. Cameroon is rich in national parks and wildlife reserves, including the Waza National Park in the north (which contains both forest and savanna animals), the Dja Faunal Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage site), and the Campo Ma'an National Park in the southwest (which has elephants, hippos, leopards, and plenty of primates). A number of agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries (e.g Alker 2008). Groundwater quality is generally good. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. Marion Valeix, 1988. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Our office hours are 08:00 - 19:00 (GMT+2). Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. The least mineralised groundwater overall is in basement aquifers. Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. Chari has a length of 590 miles, part of which forms international border between Chad and Cameroon. Finally, faecal analyses revealed a significant proportional occurrence of small antelopes in lion diet (17%). The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). What are specific water sources the Lions exploit? Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. Zeke Davidson, That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. Nasilele mubita says her family was always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source. The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. Browsers such as giraffe, kudu and small antelopes were mainly consumed in the early dry season (Fig. As such, the regular need to access drinking water constrains the movement of herbivores, and hence their distribution in the dry season [9][12]. In more rural areas, people walk great distances just to reach rivers. View our recommended safaris for inspiration and get ready to plan your dream safari, Contact us or fill out an enquiry form and one of our travel experts will help you tailor make your perfect safari, Enjoy an authentic African experience, with peace of mind, Namibia doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! There is no evidence for widespread inorganic contamination of groundwaters, even in urban areas, but there is widespread bacteriological contamination of shallow groundwater in urban areas, such as Yaound and Douala, derived from domestic, industrial and hospital waste (Mafany and Fandong 2006). The frequency of occurrence of species in the faecal dataset was highest for kudu (24%) followed by buffalo and medium Bovidae (each representing 18%; the medium Bovidae class is dominated by sable and eland for faecal data), small antelopes (17%), and giraffe (7%) collectively contributing 84% of the species found in faecal samples (Table 2). Cameroon has seen relatively high political and social stability since independence, with the same president since 1982. More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. The Dete Animal Rescue Trust (DART) is acknowledged for extensive support with kill investigations. The northern lowland region is relatively arid, with low rainfall and high temperatures. 2). It has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with respect. This aquifer is not vulnerable to saline intrusion (Mafany and Fantong 2006). All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. 2017. While many streams meander through the forested areas of East Cameroon, only few springs like that of Mambele are drinkable. Lake Chad Sub-adult and juvenile masses were approximated by multiplying adult female mass by 0.7 and 0.3 respectively [1]. An average of 300 people depend on the water source, says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. If reproducing diagrams that include third party information, please cite both the Africa Groundwater Atlas and the third party sources. 3B). The remaining species contributed less than 5% per species. Required fields are marked *. The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. Juveniles also represented an important proportion of the giraffe killed by lions (Fig. Namib Desert Water and Sanitation Program. 2006. Given the propensity of kill investigations to be biased towards large prey, this is likely an underestimation and it should be considered that juvenile zebra are highly selected for by lions. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. Felix Murindagomo, The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. It is used to supplement the domestic and industrial water demand of Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Understanding how predators make use of their environment and how actions such as augmenting water supply can alter their behavioural ecology, has implications for the long term sustainability of predator-prey systems. Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). AMCOW. 1). We used data from 74 faecal samples. Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. Faecal data, mainly representative of female diet, suggest that kudu (revealed as the second main prey for females from kill data) may be an equally important prey species for female lions and that this species may be under-represented by kill data. Jacobss index of seasonal prey preference estimated from confirmed lion kills and faecal samples. In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). Karoo and common mice (Mus spp.). United Nations. They typically form small, local aquifers, limited to areas where the rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability. Leave a comment The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR). Overlap is water shared by both the surface water and groundwater systems: Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Cameroon: Water source sustains community, 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). Water dependence varies between herbivore species [11], [13] but most species need to access drinking water on a few-day basis at the peak of the dry season, and herbivore aggregations frequently form around permanent water sources during dry seasons, as non-permanent sources further afield dry up [14], [15]. We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. Seasonal surface-water dynamics thus, influences the probability which predators can find prey and is likely to have several consequences for the ecology of predator-prey interactions. Many springs occur. Your email address will not be published. It is located in banakata. For more information see the climate resource page. When more than one prey species is available, predators are able to shift prey selection depending on relative prey availability [21]. Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year. 1 being water and season. (B) and (C) Jacobs index of seasonal preference to kill within 2 km of a waterhole for the different prey species for male and female lions respectively. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. Seasonal differences in the preference of prey were tested using Friedman rank sum tests. The Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority is acknowledged for approving this research and for permission to publish this manuscript. In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. Largely acidic groundwater, with pH from 4 to 7. The upland regions have highland forest type vegetation. Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. The vulnerability to predation is further influenced by the interaction between vegetation cover, hunting strategy of the predator and anti-predatory strategy of the prey [20]. Ten hairs could not be identified (2% of all hairs collected). This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). Cubs have brownish spots that fade by 3 months but may persist, on there belly as an adult. The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. Even though it is difficult to know from which individual a faecal sample comes from, and male and female lions are sometimes found together at a kill, samples were mainly collected at female kills and hence the faecal approach can be considered as more representative of female lion diet. They are the most recent available information in the Aquastat database. View our Cookie Policy. Please cite this page as: Upton, Dochartaigh & Bellwood-Howard, 2018. What are the water sources of Cameroon? 1). The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities," explains Njounan. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. The river is an important fishing ground for local communities. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. 2). Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. We recognise that there may have been a small number of instances where lions scavenged other predators kills, however, we assume this to be negligible based on our kill site classification methodology. Generally sodium-bicarbonate or iron/magnesium/calcium-bicarbonate type. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. It is located in rural area. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Annual rainfall was 330 mm in 20042005, 683 mm in 20052006 and 703 mm in 20062007. Prey moves between the islands and lions have to cross the water to follow. For kill data, we reported the relative contribution of each prey age class per season. The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). 2009). Chari provides an outstanding home for some fish species including nile and perch, making it an important fishing ground for many local communities. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. Volcanic centres form moderately to highly productive fractured/weathered aquifers. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. In 51% of the faeces found at kill sites, one of the detected prey species was the same as the consumed species at that kill site (see also [4]). Windhoek These sandstones form a productive aquifer, with permeabilities of around 8 to 80 m/day; transmissivities of 300 to 1700 m/day; and a storage coefficient of 0.025. Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected zone around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. They can survive days or even weeks without drinking water. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. (I accept). As a country in Africa, Cameroon is situated just between the Central and Western Regions of Africa. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. Many studies have suggested two principal causes: (1) human activities such as poor farming practices,. Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. However, much of the shallow groundwater is vulnerable to contamination. It is located in banakata. Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo. Tsavo. For medium Bovidae in the early dry season, male lions killed the three prey recorded far from a waterhole (Fig. Lions are stalk-and-ambush hunters that use vegetative cover for concealment during hunting [43] and are known to ambush prey in habitats surrounding high-prey abundance areas [44]. Transboundary Groundwater Fact Sheet, compiled by F Bontemps. This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. spesification Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. Indeed, it has become apparent in Southern Africa that male lions hunt successfully and quite often in the absence of female lions [25], [26]. For more information on the map see the, Land Cover Map of Cameroon, from the European Space Agency GlobCover 2.3, 2009. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. Large carnivores inhabiting ecosystems with heterogeneously distributed environmental resources with strong seasonal variations frequently employ opportunistic foraging strategies, often typified by seasonal switches in diet. Buffalo (the highest contribution in all seasons for both sexes) showed a constant contribution to male diet throughout the seasons, and a lower contribution to female diet in the early dry season. What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021 Subscribe to the texas a&m today newsletter for the latest news and stories every week. Sanou, S M, Temgoua, E, Guetiya, W R, Arienzo, A, Losito, F, Fokam, J, Onohiol, J F, Djeunang, B, Zambou, N F, Russo, G, Antonini, G, Pan, A and Colizzi, V. 2015. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. The basin is shared by Chad, Niger, the Central African Republic, Nigeria, Cameroon, Algeria, Sudan and Libya. "Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. Was established in 1996 and it is managed by the pvt. Jacobs index ranges between 1 (highly avoided), 0 (used in proportion to availability) and 1 (highly selected). Vassolo S. 2012. Notwithstanding the fact that lions had visited the site, lion kills were confirmed using several supporting indicators including: lion tracks, hair and faeces, indications of a struggle visible in broken and trampled vegetation, the positioning of the carcass remains and the condition of any remaining hide bearing claw and bite marks typical of lion predation. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. Imagine that thomas was asked to collect the water needed to supply only the cooking and The congo river is the world's second largest after amazon river in . We assessed lion diet by combining carcass observations and faeces collection from GPS clusters, a method with recognized strengths [3], [4]. Sightings of lion in the hluhluwe umfolozi vary according to various factors. spesification Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. Jacobs index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4].
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